YOU WERE LOOKING FOR: Chapter 25 Introduction To Animals Test A Answer Key
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Housing Primary Enclosures The primary enclosure usually a cage, pen, or stall provides the limits of an animal's immediate environment. Acceptable primary enclosures Allow for the normal physiologic and behavioral needs of the animals, including urination and defecation, maintenance of body temperature, normal movement and postural adjustments, and, where indicated, reproduction. Allow conspecific social interaction and development of hierarchies within or between enclosures. Make it possible for the animals to remain clean and dry as consistent with the requirements of the species. Allow adequate ventilation. Allow the animals access to food and water and permit easy filling, refilling, changing, servicing, and cleaning of food and water utensils. Provide a secure environment that does not allow escape of or accidental entrapment of animals or their appendages between opposing surfaces or by structural openings.
Are free of sharp edges or projections that could cause injury to the animals. Allow observation of the animals with minimal disturbance of them. Primary enclosures should be constructed with materials that balance the needs of the animal with the ability to provide for sanitation. They should have smooth, impervious surfaces with minimal ledges, angles, corners, and overlapping surfaces so that accumulation of dirt, debris, and moisture is reduced and satisfactory cleaning and disinfecting are possible. They should be constructed of durable materials that resist corrosion and withstand rough handling without chipping, cracking, or rusting.
They often require different husbandry practices, such as alterations in the frequency of bedding change, the use of aseptic handling techniques, and specialized cleaning, disinfecting, or sterilization regimens to prevent microbial transmission by other than the airborne route. Rodents are often housed on wire flooring, which enhances sanitation of the cage by enabling urine and feces to pass through to a collection tray.
However, some evidence suggests that solid-bottom caging, with bedding, is preferred by rodents Fullerton and Gilliatt ; Grover-Johnson and Spencer ; Ortman and others Solid-bottom caging, with bedding, is therefore recommended for rodents. Vinyl-coated flooring is often used for other species, such as dogs and nonhuman primates. IACUC review of this aspect of the animal care program should ensure that caging enhances animal well-being consistent with good sanitation and the requirements of the research project. Sheltered or Outdoor Housing Sheltered or outdoor housing—such as barns, corrals, pastures, and islands-is a common primary housing method for some species and is acceptable for many situations.
In most cases, outdoor housing entails maintaining animals in groups. When animals are maintained in outdoor runs, pens, or other large enclosures, there must be protection from extremes in temperature or other harsh weather conditions and adequate protective and escape mechanisms for submissive animals. These goals can be achieved by such features as windbreaks, shelters, shaded areas, areas with forced ventilation, heat-radiating structures, or means of retreat to conditioned spaces, such as an indoor portion of a run. Shelters should be accessible to all animals, have sufficient ventilation, and be designed to prevent buildup of waste materials and excessive moisture. Houses, dens, boxes, shelves, perches, and other furnishings should be constructed in a manner and made of materials that allow cleaning or replacement in accord with generally accepted husbandry practices when the furnishings are excessively soiled or worn.
Floors or ground-level surfaces of outdoor housing facilities can be covered with dirt, absorbent bedding, sand, gravel, grass, or similar material that can be removed or replaced when that is needed to ensure appropriate sanitation. Excessive buildup of animal waste and stagnant water should be avoided by, for example, using contoured or drained surfaces.
Other surfaces should be able to withstand the elements and be easily maintained. Training of animals to cooperate with veterinary and investigative personnel and to enter chutes or cages for restraint or transport. Species-appropriate social environment. Adequate security via a perimeter fence or other means. Naturalistic Environments Areas like pastures and islands afford opportunities to provide a suitable environment for maintaining or producing animals and for some types of research.
Their use results in the loss of some control over nutrition, health care and surveillance, and pedigree management. These limitations should be balanced against the benefits of having the animals live in more natural conditions. Animals should be added to, removed from, and returned to social groups in this setting with appropriate consideration of the effects on the individual animals and on the group. Adequate supplies of food, fresh water, and natural or constructed shelter should be ensured.
Space Recommendations An animal's space needs are complex, and consideration of only the animal's body weight or surface area is insufficient. Therefore, the space recommendations presented here are based on professional judgment and experience and should be considered as recommendations of appropriate cage sizes for animals under conditions commonly found in laboratory animal housing facilities. Vertical height, structuring of the space, and enrichments can clearly affect animals' use of space. Some species benefit more from wall space e. Thus, basing cage-size recommendations on floor space alone is inadequate. In this regard, the Guide might differ from the AWRs see footnote 1, p. Space allocations should be reviewed and modified as necessary to address individual housing situations and animal needs for example, for prenatal and postnatal care, obese animals, and group or individual housing.
Such animal performance indexes as health, reproduction, growth, behavior, activity, and use of space can be used to assess the adequacy of housing. At a minimum, an animal must have enough space to turn around and to express normal postural adjustments, must have ready access to food and water, and must have enough clean-bedded or unobstructed area to move and rest in. For cats, a raised resting surface should be included in the cage. Low resting surfaces that do not allow the space under them to be comfortably occupied by the animal should be counted as part of the floor space. Floor space taken up by food bowls, water containers, litter boxes, or other devices not intended for movement or resting should not be considered part of the floor space.
The need for and type of adjustments in the amounts of primary enclosure space recommended in the tables that follow should be approved at the institutional level by the IACUC and should be based on the performance outcomes described in the preceding paragraph with due consideration of the AWRs and PHS Policy see footnote 1, p. Professional judgment, surveys of the literature and current practices, and consideration of the animals' physical, behavioral, and social needs and of the nature of the protocol and its requirements might be necessary see Crockett and others , Assessment of animals' space needs should be a continuing process. With the passage of time or long-term protocols, adjustments in floor space and height should be considered and modified as necessary. It is not within the scope or size constraints of the Guide to discuss the housing requirements of all species used in research.
For species not mentioned, space and height allocations for an animal of equivalent size and with a similar activity profile and similar behavior can be used as a starting point from which adjustments that take species-specific and individual needs into account can be made. Whenever it is appropriate, social animals should be housed in pairs or groups, rather than individually, provided that such housing is not contraindicated by the protocol in question and does not pose an undue risk to the animals Brain and Bention Depending on a variety of biologic and behavioral factors, group-housed animals might need less or more total space per animal than individually housed animals.
Recommendations provided below are based on the assumption that pair or group housing is generally preferable to single housing, even when members of the pair or group have slightly less space per animal than when singly caged. For example, each animal can share the space allotted to the animals with which it is housed. Furthermore, some rodents or swine housed in compatible groups seek each other out and share cage space by huddling together along walls, lying on each other during periods of rest, or gathering in areas of retreat White ; White and others Cattle, sheep, and goats exhibit herding behavior and seek group associations and close physical contact.
Conversely, some animals, such as various species of nonhuman primates, might need additional individual space when group-housed to reduce the level of aggression. The height of enclosures can be important in the normal behavior and postural adjustments of some species. Cage heights should take into account typical postures of an animal and provide adequate clearance for normal cage components, such as feeders and water devices, including sipper tubes. For them, the ability to perch and to have adequate vertical space to keep the whole body above the cage floor can improve their well-being. Space allocations for animals should be based on the following tables, but might need to be increased, or decreased with approval of the IACUC, on the basis of criteria previously listed. Table 2. If they are housed individually or exceed the weights in the table, animals might require more space.
These allocations are based, in general, on the needs of individually housed animals. Space allocations should be re-evaluated to provide for enrichment of the primary enclosure or to accommodate animals that exceed the weights in the table. For group housing. Space for group-housed animals should be based on individual species needs, behavior, compatibility of the animals, numbers of animals, and goals of the housing situation. TABLE 2.
Diffusion From kinetic theory, matter is made up of particles that are in continuous random motion. In solids, the particles are at fixed positions and can only vibrate at these fixed positions. In liquids and gases, the particles are loosely held and are free to move from one region to another randomly. This movement of gas or liquid particles is observed to be from regions of high concentration to a region of low concentration. The process by which particles move from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration is known as diffusion. Diffusion occurs until the regions have an even concentration of the liquid or gas particles. Procedure a Hold the glass tubing vertically in a beaker so that one end of the tubing rests on the bottom of the beaker. Expected observations After some time, the purple colour of the potassium manganate VII spread throughout the water and eventually all the water turned purple.
The potassium manganate VII particles break away from the crystals, dissolve in water and then diffuse through the water until they are evenly distributed. The Role of Diffusion in Living Organisms a In Plants Diffusion plays an important role in plants in that: It helps in absorption of mineral salts from the soil to the plant.
Most salts dissolve in soil water. For those salts whose concentration in soil water is higher that their concentration in the cell sap of root hair cells, they move into the root hair cells through diffusion. Plants require mineral salts for numerous life processes. Diffusion plays a role in gaseous exchange in plants. The respiratory gases oxygen and carbon IV oxide diffuse across the stomata and lenticels of plants. Diffusion also contributes to the transportation of manufactured food materials from the leaves to other parts of the plant. End products of digestion such as amino acids and glucose diffuse across the wall of the ileum into the blood for transport to other parts of the animal body. Diffusion also plays a significant role in gaseous exchange in animals. In animals, gaseous exchange occurs at certain structures known as respiratory surfaces. These include the skin, gills, lungs, tracheal system and the cell membrane in unicellular organisms.
Gaseous exchange at these surfaces occurs through the process of diffusion. Diffusion is important in excretion of nitrogenous wastes especially in unicellular animals. Factors affecting the rate of Diffusion a Diffusion gradient A greater diffusion gradient between two points increases the rate of diffusion. Increasing the concentration of diffusing molecules also increases diffusion gradient with corresponding regions hence increases the rate of diffusion. The greater the surface area to volume ratio, the greater the rate of diffusion will be.
Conversely, low surface area to volume ratio results in a low diffusion rate. This implies that diffusion rate is greater in small organisms than the large organisms. This is because the small organisms have a large surface area to volume ratio. As a result, most of their body parts are closer to the external surrounding leading to faster diffusion. Small organisms can, therefore, depend on diffusion alone as a means of transporting foods, respiratory gases and waste products. To large organisms, diffusion alone is inadequate as a means of transport of foods and excretion. They have an additional transport system. Organisms always lose heat to the surrounding through diffusion. This implies that small animals lose a lot of heat to the surrounding compared to the large animals. This is because the distance covered by the diffusing molecules is greater through the thicker membranes. The rate of diffusion is higher in thinner membranes. Osmosis Osmosis is a process by which solvent molecules move from a region of high concentration dilute solution to a region of low concentration concentrated solution through a semi permeable membrane.
Osmosis can be described as a special type of diffusion since it involves movement of solvent Water particles from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration. Demonstration of Osmosis Using a Visking Tubing Requirements 5OOcm3 beaker, visking tubing, a piece of thread, glass rod, concentrated sugar solution, cm3 distilled Water. Procedure 1. Into the beaker, put cm3 of the distilled water. Dip the visking tubing in water to moisten it. Open the visking tubing and tie one end with the thread provided. Half fill the visking tubing with the sugar solution provided and then tie the open end of the tubing. Ensure no sugar solution spills out of the tubing. Immerse the visking tubing into the distilled water in the beaker and suspend it using the glass rod provided. Leave the set up for about 30 minutes. Record your observations. Explain the observations made. Observations The visking tubing became swollen indicating that its cell contents increased.
The amount of water in the beaker decreased. This implies that water moved from the beaker into the visking tubing. Explanation The visking tubing contains both sugar and water molecules. The beaker contains a higher concentration of water molecules than the visking tubing. The water molecules diffused from the beaker where they are highly concentrated into the visking tubing where they are lowly concentrated. Even though there is a higher concentration of sugar molecules in the visking tubing, they were not able to diffuse out of the visking tubing due to their large molecular sizes. The visking tubing is semi permeable. Other than visking tubing, dialysis tubing or cellophane are also other semi permeable membranes that can be used in this experiment.
Osmosis explained When two separate solutions are separated by a semi permeable membrane, there will be movement of water molecules from their region of high concentration dilute solution to a region of low concentration the highly concentrated solution across the semi permeable membrane. The semi permeable membrane does not allow movement of solute particles across it. The movement of the water molecules continues until the separate solutions have the same concentrations. Solutions with the same concentrations are referred to as isotonic solutions. The solutions are said to be isotonic to each other. A lowly concentrated solution dilute solution is referred to as a hypotonic solution.
A hypotonic solution has less of the solute molecules but more of the solvent molecules. A highly concentrated solution with more of the solute particles but less of the solvent particles is referred to as a hypertonic solution. When isotonic solutions are separated with a semi permeable membrane, there will be no net movement of solvent molecules to any of the solutions since they have the same concentration of solvent molecules. Osmotic pressure When a concentrated solution is separated from distilled water by a semi permeable membrane, the concentrated solution will develop a force with which it draws water through the semi permeable membrane from the distilled water. Osmotic pressure refers to the force with which a concentrated solution draws water to itself. An osmometer is an instrument used to measure the osmotic pressure. Osmotic potential This is a measure of the pressure a solution would develop to withdraw water molecules from pure water when separated by a semi permeable membrane.
Water Relations in Animals As discussed earlier, the cell membrane is semi permeable. Let us discuss what would happen if an animal cell say red blood cell is placed in solutions of varying concentrations a Red blood cell in hypotonic solution e. When a red blood cell is placed in a hypotonic solution, water will move into the cell through osmosis. The cell will swell and burst. Swelling of red blood cell when placed in a hypotonic solution is referred to as haemolysis. The cell is said to be haemolysed. Water will, therefore, be drawn out of the cell into the hypertonic solution. The cell will shrink and become small. The cell is said to be crenated. The process by which animal cells shrink and become smaller when placed in hypertonic solutions is referred to as crenation. Note: When the cell becomes haemolysed or crenated, its functioning is impaired. This will prevent bursting or shrinking of the cells that would otherwise impair their physiology.
The body has a mechanism through which these concentrations are maintained at a nearly same concentration. Water Relations in Plants Water relations in plant cells differ with that in animal cells. A plant cell has both a cellulose cell wall and cell membrane. The centre of the cell contains vacuole with sap. The sap is a solution of salts and sugars and is bound by a membrane, the tonoplast. The cell membrane and tonoplast are semi permeable while the cellulose cell wall is fully permeable. The cellulose cell wall is rigid and does not allow plant cells to burst as in the case of animal cells.
As the cell gains more water, the vacuole enlarges and exerts an outward an outward pressure on the cell wall called turgor pressure. The turgor pressure increases as more water is taken into the vacuole causing the cell to stretch until the cell cannot stretch any more. The cell becomes firm and is said to be turgid. Turgor pressure is the outward pressure that the cell cytoplasm exerts on the cell wall as it gains more water through osmosis. When the cell wall is being stretched towards the outside, it will develop a resistant pressure to stretching that is equal and opposite to turgor pressure called wall pressure. It the cell loses more water, its contents reduce in size and the plasma membrane pulls away from the cell wall towards the centre. Wilting Plants always lose water to the atmosphere through transpiration and evaporation.
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